JCPSLP Vol 22 No 1 2020

knowledge of trained words, and can lead to improvements in comprehension of texts containing the trained words, it typically does not generalise to standardised assessments of reading comprehension, or comprehension of texts that do not contain trained words (Wright & Cervetti, 2017). Even strategy-based instruction does not typically result in broad reading comprehension improvements, as measured on standardised reading comprehension tasks (Wright & Cervetti, 2017). These findings may seem disheartening. Yet they are not entirely surprising when we consider that vocabulary learning is a long-term, incremental process (Biemiller, 2003). When we teach vocabulary, we are not teaching a general skill that can be applied to any situation – we are teaching knowledge about the world, and this takes time to accumulate. Furthermore, as children progress through the education system, subject content and reading comprehension task demands become more and more challenging. Therefore, vocabulary learning is never “finished”, and children with vocabulary difficulties need long- term instruction to keep up with these changing demands. Ideally, SLPs should work with a child’s school and parents to help facilitate this. Teaching vocabulary to improve reading comprehension is no easy prospect – there are no shortcuts or quick fixes. But research has shown that children can and do learn new words and new strategies, and that this can lead to specific improvements in children’s reading comprehension. Armed with this knowledge, SLPs working with school-age children are better equipped to help children with language The author would like to thank Professor Anne Castles and Dr Saskia Kohnen for their feedback on an earlier draft. References Beck, I., McKeown, M., & Kucan, L. (2008). Creating robust vocabulary: Frequently asked questions and extended examples . New York: Guildford Press. Beck, I., McKeown, M., & Kucan, L. (2013). Bringing words to life: Robust vocabulary instruction (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford Press. Beck, I., Perfetti, C. A., & McKeown, M. (1982). Effects of long-term vocabulary instruction on lexical access and reading comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology , 74 (4), 506–521. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.74.4.506 Biemiller, A. (2003). Vocabulary: needed if more children are to read well. Reading Psychology , 24 (3–4), 323–335. doi:10.1080/02702710390227297 Bowers, P. N., & Kirby, J. R. (2010). Effects of morphological instruction on vocabulary acquisition. Reading and Writing , 23 , 515–537. doi: 10.1007/s11145- 009-9172-z Bowers, P. N., Kirby, J. R., & Deacon, S. H. (2010). the effects of morphological instruction on literacy skills: A systematic review of the literature. Review of Educational Research , 80 (2), 144–179. doi:10.3102/0034654309359353 Cain, K., & Oakhill, J. (2006). Profiles of children with specific reading comprehension difficulties. British Journal of Educational Psychology , 76 (4), 683–696. doi:10.1348/000709905X67610 Castles, A., Rastle, K., & Nation, K. (2018). Ending the reading wars: Reading acquisition from novice to expert. Psychological Science in the Public Interest , 19 (1), 5–51. doi:10.1177/1529100618772271 difficulties reach their full potential. Acknowledgements

Catts, H. W., Fey, M. E., Zhang, X., & Tomblin, J. B. (1999). Language basis of reading and reading disabilities: Evidence from a longitudinal investigation. Scientific Studies of Reading , 3 (4), 331–361. doi:10.1207/ s1532799xssr0304_2 Catts, H. W., Fey, M. E., Tomblin, J. B., & Xhang, X. (2002). A longitudinal investigation of reading outcomes in children with language impairments. Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing Research , 45 , 1142–1157. doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2002/093) Catts, H. W., Sittner Bridges, M., Little, T. D., & Tomblin, J. B. (2008). Reading achievement growth in children with language impairments. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research , 51 , 1569–1579. doi:10.1044/1092- 4388(2008/07-0259) Clarke, P. J., Snowling, M. J., Truelove, E., & Hulme, C. (2010). Ameliorating children’s reading- comprehension difficulties: a randomized controlled trial. Psychological Science , 21 (8), 1106–1116. doi:10.1177/0956797610375449 Clarke, P. J., Truelove, E., Hulme, C., & Snowling, M. (2014). Developing reading comprehension . Oxford, UK: Wiley Blackwell. Colenbrander, D., Kohnen, S., Smith-Lock, K., & Nickels, L. (2016). Individual differences in the vocabulary skills of children with poor reading comprehension. Learning and Individual Differences , 50, 210–220. doi:0.1016/j. lindif.2016.07.021 Colenbrander, D., Miles, K. P., & Ricketts, J. 2019. To see or not to see: How does seeing spellings support vocabulary learning? Language, Speech and Hearing Services in Schools , 50 , 609–628. doi: 10.1044/2019_ LSHSS-VOIA-18-0135 Cunningham, A. E., & Stanovich, K. E. (1998). What reading does for the mind. Journal of Direct Instruction , 1 (2), 137–149. Duff, D. (2019). The effect of vocabulary intervention on text comprehension: Who benefits? Language, Speech and Hearing Services in Schools , 50 , 562–578. doi:10.1044/2019_LSHSS-VOIA-18-0001 Elbro, C., de Jong, P. F., Houter, D., & Nielsen, A.-M. (2012). From spelling pronunciation to lexical access: A second step in word decoding? Scientific Studies of Reading , 16 (4), 341–359. doi:10.1080/10888438.2011.56 8556 Elleman, A. M., Lindo, E. J., Morphy, P., & Compton, D. L. (2009). The impact of vocabulary instruction on passage- level comprehension of school-age children: A meta- analysis. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness , 2 (1), 1–44. doi:10.1080/19345740802539200 Goodwin, A. P., & Ahn, S. (2010). A meta-analysis of morphological interventions: effects on literacy achievement of children with literacy difficulties. Annals of Dyslexia , 60 , 183–208. doi:10.1007/s11881-010-0041-x Goodwin, A. P., & Ahn, S. (2013). A meta-analysis of morphological interventions in English: Effects on literacy outcomes for school-age children. Scientific Studies of Reading , 17 , 257–285. doi:10.1080/10888438.2012.689 791 Goodwin, A.P., Lipsky, M., & Ahn, S. (2012). Word detectives: Using units of meaning to support literacy. The Reading Teacher , 65 , 461–470. doi:10.1002/trtr.01069 Gough, P. B., & Tunmer, W. E. (1986). Decoding, reading, and reading disability. Remedial and Special Education , 7 , 6–10. doi:10.1177/074193258600700104

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JCPSLP Volume 22, Number 1 2020

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