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speak their home language to avoid added difficulty for the child. The available evidence suggests that children with language impairments are able to learn two different languages, and will not suffer any additional disadvantage as a result (Elin Thordardottir, Weismer, & Smith, 1997; Paradis, Crago, Genesee, & Rice, 2003). This is true also of children with Down syndrome (Feltmate & Kay-Raining Bird, 2008; Kay-Raining Bird, Trudeau, Elin Thordardottir, Sutton, & Thorpe, 2005). There are compelling social reasons for the maintenance of home languages, but pragmatic justification for a focus on the majority language may be presented (for example, that this is the language used in the education system). Ultimately, the choice of language (or languages) to be spoken in the home will be made by the family, for reasons which may be unique to that family. The literature contains different perspectives on the question of which language to use in intervention. Speech Pathology Australia (2009) recommends that a decision regarding the language of intervention be made in collaboration with the family after consideration of a number of factors, including the language skills of the clinician and the preferences of the family. The limited evidence available suggests that a focus on both of the child’s languages leads to better outcomes, and that a focus on processes common to the two languages will facilitate progress (Elin Thordardottir, 2010). Gains in both languages in bilingual intervention for a child with autism have been reported (Seung, Siddiqi, & Elder, 2005). Kohnert (2008) has suggested that, rather than asking which language to use in intervention, clinicians should ask how to support the development of the languages needed by the child. This support is, in most cases, unlikely to include intervention delivered by the speech pathologist in the home language of the child. An international study of practices of speech pathologists working with bilingual clients (Jordaan, 2008) found that 87% of respondents worked with children in one language only, their own. Williams and McLeod (2011) reported that 57.9% of Australian respondents worked with their bilingual clients only in English. Support for both languages must therefore be delivered in innovative ways. Kohnert (2008) suggested a number of general strategies which could be used to achieve this goal. These include using collaborative strategies to develop the home language (for example, working with others who share the child’s first language), supporting the development of general language abilities (for example, through a focus on print and literacy, and ensuring an optimum listening environment) and focusing on elements which may transfer from one language to the other. Conclusions Working with children from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds presents a number of challenges to speech pathologists in Australia. These challenges arise from the large number of languages spoken, the small number of bilingual speech pathologists, and the geographical distribution of the Australian population. The evidence base in this important area remains relatively small. All practitioners who work with children from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds have a part to play in helping to develop evidence to support practice and inform research. Well-designed and carefully reported single subject case studies which document the choices made (e.g., the language(s) used, the model of intervention), procedures and outcomes of interventions undertaken in

the clinical context can be reported in the literature. These small scale studies are within the scope of practitioners, and can then help to build a body of data which can be the basis of larger, controlled research projects. Sharing of the outcomes of the studies with the professional community will help to inform practice throughout Australia. References Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS). (2010). Yearbook Australia, 2009–10 . Retrieved from http://www.abs.gov.au/ AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/Lookup/1301.0Feature+Article70120 09%E2%80%9310 De Houwer, A. (2010). Bilingual first language acquisition . Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters. Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, (2010). Australia in brief . Retrieved from http://www.dfat.gov.au/aib/ overview.html Elin Thordardottir, T. (2010). Towards evidence-based practice in language intervention for bilingual children. Journal of Communication Disorders , 43 (6), 523–537. Elin Thordardottir, T., Weismer, S. E., & Smith, M. E. (1997). Vocabulary learning in bilingual and monolingual clinical intervention. Child Language Teaching and Therapy , 13 (3), 215–227. Fagundes, D., Haynes, W., Haak, N., & Moran, M. (1998). Task variability effects on the language test performance of southern lower socioeconomic class African American and Caucasian five-year-olds. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools , 29 , 148–157. Feltmate, K., & Kay-Raining Bird, E. (2008). Language learning in four bilingual children with Down Syndrome: A detailed analysis of vocabulary and morpho-syntax. Canadian Journal of Speech-Language Pathology and Audiology , 32 (1), 6–20. Genesee, F., Paradis, J., & Crago, M. (Eds.). (2004). Dual language development and disorders . Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes. Goldstein, B., & Gildersleeve-Neumann, C. (2007). Typical phonological acquisition in bilinguals. Perspectives on Communication Disorders and Sciences in Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Populations , 14 (2), 11–16. Gutierrez-Clellan, V., & Peña, E. (2001). Dynamic assessment of diverse children: A tutorial. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools , 32 (4), 212–224. Gutierrez-Clellan, V., & Simon-Cereijido, G. (2009). Using language sampling in clinical assessments with bilingual children: Challenges and future directions. Seminars in Speech and Language , 30 (4), 234–245. Isaac, K. (2002). Speech Pathology in cultural and linguistic diversity . Philadelphia, PA: Whurr. Jordaan, H. (2008). Clinical intervention for bilingual children: An international survey. Folia Phoniatrica et Logopaedica , 60 (2), 97–105. Kay-Raining Bird, E., Trudeau, N., Elin Thordardottir, T., Sutton, A., & Thorpe, A. (2005). The language abilities of bilingual children with Down syndrome. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology , 14 , 187–199. Kohnert, K. (2008). Language disorders in bilingual children and adults . San Diego, CA: Plural Publishing. Kohnert, K. (2010). Bilingual children with primary language impairment: Issues, evidence and implications for clinical actions. Journal of Communication Disorders , 43(6), 456–473. Kohnert, K., & Medina, A. (2009). Bilingual children and communication disorders: A 30-year research retrospective. Seminars in Speech and Language , 30 (4), 219–233.

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