ACQ Vol 11 no 2 2009

with a range of meanings. Lack of a single precise consensus definition of literacy is a serious issue in research and policy. Definitions vary widely and include (see Education Queensland [2008] for an extended list): • literacy is the ability to read and write (De Lemos, 2002, p. 3); • literacy [includes] listening, reading, speaking, viewing (still and moving images) and writing, for a range of purposes in a variety of contexts (Education Queensland, 2002, p. 6); • literacy is the flexible and sustainable mastery of a repertoire of practices with texts of, and produced in, traditional and new communication technologies (Education Queensland, 2000, p. 9). In addition, the word literacy is also used to mean “competence”, “skills with computers”, “critical thinking”, or even “communicating” generally. Unfortunately, if literacy has

of the commonly used images may actually undermine the enduring importance of spoken language for literacy development and the relevance of SPs in the literacy area. SPs with knowledge about the shortcomings of pre-service training for teachers in language will be better equipped to promote the importance of spoken language for literacy, and their own role in both spoken and written language. Various definitions of literacy Every scientific investigation requires a clear statement of the topic under consideration. Wilson (2005) stated that without attention to definitions, we literally do not know what we are talking about, resulting in much theory and practice being disconnected from the real world. He cautioned that even commonly used terms for which we think we share definitions (for example, memory and cognition) are used Table 1. Summary of historical perspectives of literacy Dominant Conditioned Natural Information

Sociocultural

Engaged learning

Reconditioned

perspective learning

learning

processing

learning

learning

Period

1950–1965

1966–1975

1976–1985

1986–1995

1996–2004

1996–2004

Motivating Political attention in

Dissatisfaction with US government behaviourism as an funding for the

Clinical research Interest in students’ Accountability and

force

US focused on “fixing” literacy

findings proved

motivation and self- national testing

explanation for literacy learning

creation of literacy less promising in efficacy beliefs

Difficulties in testing

problems

research centres practice than

literacy

anticipated

Broader

Behaviourism

Psycholinguistics

Cognitive

Postmodernism,

Computers redefine Productivity

influences

Advances in

psychology

cultural

“text” and concept

agendas

neurology

Kantian philosophy anthropology

of literacy

Concern about

Artificial intelligence

Experiential learning “falling literacy standards”

View of literacy

Literacy is conditioned behaviour

Literacy is a natural Literacy is process, an innate mechanistic

Literacy is the

Literacy is expression Literacy is

creation of a mutual of the individual’s understanding in a construction of social interaction meaningful and

conditioned

human capacity, developed through

information processing,

behaviour (although student’s motivation

meaningful use

organising and

within a context at

socially valuable

is important)

storing knowledge a particular time

knowledge

Focus on Perceptual activities

Exposure to written Story grammar, text Social and

Meaning making

Sub-skills; mainly for beginning or struggling readers

Observable behaviour texts in meaningful

cohesion and structure, text

contextual

strategies

Individual skill

situations

contributions Outcomes less important than

Development over

Controlled vocabulary Individual skill

genres

time

Individual skill

Authentic literature Individual skill

Authentic literature Controlled

Controlled vocabulary

process

vocabulary

Authentic literature

Top down Bottom up

Top down

Bottom up

Top down

Top down

Bottom up

Implications Literacy can be

“Whole language” Intervention focused Teachers are

An “integrated”

Garnered support

broken into sub-skills philosophy. Literacy on text-processing facilitators or

view of literacy as from researchers cognitive, aesthetic and practitioners in

which can be rein- forced in systematic

encompassed all

strategies, e.g., summarisation, mapping, self-

guides only

language arts “Diagnosis” is

Emergence of “critical literacy”

and sociocultural

special education

instruction

Concept of deficiencies ascertaining how questioning and Interest in developing the “unexpected” predicting diagnostic instruments responses reflected and remedial attempts to make techniques meaning

References Pearson & Stevens,

Chomsky, 1975;

Anderson, 1977;

Chipman, 1993;

Dewey, 1910/1991; Coltheart, 2005; Gillingham, Young Paris & Urdan, & Kulikowich, 1994 2000; Torgesen,

1994; Skinner, 1974 Clay, 1976;

Reynolds, Sinatra Sfard, 1998;

Goodman &

& Jetton, 1996; Rumelhart, 1980; Stanovich, 1986

Vygotsky,

Goodman, 1980; Halliday & Hasan,

1934/1986

1998

1976

68

ACQ Volume 11, Number 2 2009

ACQ uiring knowledge in speech, language and hearing